Cinnamon an all-Inclusive Review: Detailed Examination of the Botanical Characteristics, Pharmacological properties, and Therapeutic Potential of Diverse Cinnamon Species

Chetashri N. Patil¹, Swati U. Kolhe², Manthan R. Rode¹, Swapnil S. Lad¹,

Asawari P Mansabdar¹

¹M-Pharm, Department of Pharmacology, AISSMS College of Pharmacy, Pune - 411001, Maharashtra, India.

²Faculty, Department of Pharmacology, AISSMS College of Pharmacy, Pune - 411001, Maharashtra, India.

*Corresponding Author E-mail: patilchetashri5777@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:

Cinnamomum is a genus belonging to the Lauraceae family and has been traditionally used for medicinal and culinary purposes. Southern India and Sri Lanka are the native habitats of the Cinnamomum genus. The two most significant types of cinnamon are Ceylon and cassia, this can be bought on marketplaces in both Europe and the US. Cinnamon is rich in phytochemicals such asPhyto alkaloids, Bioflavonoids, proteins, glycosides, phenols, terpenoids, tannins, and carbohydrates. The most significant components of cinnamon are cinnamaldehyde, cinnamate and cinnamic acid which are found in the essential oil and contribute to the aroma and numerous biological properties associated with cinnamon. Cinnamon is used in a variety of goods, including traditional spices, incense, fragrances, and food. It is also used in Ayurvedic medicine to regulate the Vata and Pitta elements in the body. It's been discovered that cinnamon possesses anti-diabetic, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-HIV activity, wound healing, and anti-anxiety and depression properties. This review article offers comprehensive insights into theplant morphology, ancestral uses, chemical constituents with their pharmacological actions of various species of cinnamon as medicine.

KEYWORDS: Cinnamon, Cinnamon species, Cinnamaldehyde, Cinnamate, Traditional uses, Ayurvedic medicine.

INTRODUCTION:

For thousands of years, medicinal knowledge of herbal plants has been passed down from one generation to the next. Only a very small number of traditional medicines includes Unani, Siddha and Ayurveda have been chemically and pharmacologically evaluated for their potential medical effectiveness^1,2.

Since antiquity, Cinnamon has long been used as a culinary spice and in conventional healthcare systems. With nearly 250 species of trees and shrubs, the genera Cinnamomum, which is a member of the Lauraceae family, is made reference to as "cinnamon"³. The price of cinnamon was once fifteen times that of silver, making it one of the most precious natural medicines in the eyes of the Greeks and Romans. The word "cinnamomum comes from the Greek word "kinnamon," which signifies "sweet wood." The term "kayu manis," which also means "sweet wood" in Malayan and Indonesian, may have influenced the terminology of Greek⁴. Two types of cinnamon, Ceylon and cassia, are offered in the markets of the US and Europe. Cinnamomum verum is the source of Ceylon cinnamon, also referred to as "true cinnamon." (syn. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees) this species is indigenous to Sri Lanka and southern India.^5,6,7. The most significant origins of Cassia cinnamon or Chinese cinnamon (Cinnamomum aromaticum). Cinnamon from Indonesia and Vietnam are (Cinnamomum burmanni) and (Cinnamomum loureiroi) Respectively⁸. The phytochemical screening of bark of C. zeylanicum Phyto-alkaloids and Bioflavonoids were discovered to be present, proteins, glycosides, phenols, terpenoids, tannins and carbohydrates⁹. Numerous resinous components, such as cinnamaldehyde, cinnamate, cinnamic acid, and a number of essential oils present in cinnamon^10,11. The two most significant components of cinnamon are cinnamaldehyde and trans-cinnamaldehyde (Cin), both of which are found in the essential oil and contribute to the aroma and the numerous biological properties associated with cinnamon. Study of Cinnamon revealed its various pharmacological activities like Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic and in neurological disorders^11,12.

TAXONOMY:

Scientific classification¹³

Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)

Division: Tracheophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Family: Lauraceae

Genus: Cinnamomum

Species: Zeylanicum

VERNACULAR NAMES:

Vernacular names in India¹³

English: Cinnamon

Hindi: Dalchini

Malayalam: Karuvapatta, Ilavarngathely

Gujarati: Taja

Punjab: Dalchini, Darchin

Tamil: Ilayangam

Urdu: Darchini

Telugu: Lavanga Patta

Vernacular names in different countries:¹⁴

Arabic: Darasini, Qirfahesailaniyah, Kirpa

Chinese: Yuh, Juh, Kevei

Dutch: Kaneel, Kulmiedarchinie, Caneel

French: Cannelle, Bois de cannelle, Cannelier, Laurier cannelier

Greek: Zimmt, Ceylonzimt, Kanohl

Italian: Cannella, Cannella de Ceylon

Latin: Cinnamomi Cortex

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION:

Tree:

A very enormous tree with buttressed roots, pale, smooth, thin bark, and thickly pubescent new globous young parts and finely silky bud’s shoots¹⁵.

Leaves:

leaves imparipinnate compound, alternating, cylindrical, thick, pilose, lenticulate, rachis 15–20 cm long, reticulate venation, bright pink when young¹⁵.

Fruit:

Fruit is oblong-ovoid, 1.2cm long, covered in an expanded Floral envelope, Desiccated, Succulent, and has seeds without endosperm¹⁵.

Flowers:

Female flower- Flowers are tiny, regular, unisexual, pale greenish yellow on short, stout pedicels that are grouped in narrow, terminal panicles that are pedunculate and rufous-tomentose, calyx and corolla as in the male; stamens 6, rudimentary, ovary superior, 3-locular with 2 ovules in each loculus, style short, stigma capitate¹⁶.

Male flowers - many and crowded, while female flowers are sparse, tomentose, and fall early, sepals 3, fused into a 3-Iobed calyx, cup-shaped, pilose; petals 3, about twice as long as the calyx, very thick, erect, pilose outside¹⁶.

Table No.1 Botanical description of various species of Cinnamon^17-24.

	C. zeylanicum	C. cassia	C. burmanni	C. loureiroi
Occurrence/ Native habitat	Indigenous to Sri Lanka. At present, also grown in Seychelles, Madagascar, and north-western India	Occurs wild in the mountains of southern China, now cultivated in the Guangxi (Kwangsi) and Guangdong (Kwangtung) provinces of China	Indonesia and can be found abundant in Central of Java, (Karanganyar), West Sumatra (Padang), Jambi (Kerinci).	It is mainly grown in Northern regions of Vietnam and Southern China bordering to Vietnam.
Leaf characteristics	Leaves are carried on short petioles, opposite, leathery, ovate to broadly ovate with three (and rarely five) prominent veins. even contour, Blunt, dull, delicate terminations. Dark green on the upper side and light green on the underside characterize of fully grown leaves.	Leavesare lean, oblong or oblanceolate, slightly facing, and have three noticeable veins. Young, dark, and reddish leaves are present.	Glossy green, alternate, frequently opposite leaves that are narrowly oblong to elliptical in shape and have an apex that is increasingly acute are present at the tips of immature branches.	thin, lanceolate or oblanceolate, subopposite, and with three noticeable veins. When young, their leaves are reddish; as they age, they turn dark green.
Flower	Small (about 3mm in diameter), pale yellow flowers are borne in axillary or terminal panicles, at the end of twigs. Displaying protogynous dichogamy, the plant has two distinct flower morphologies referred to as "Type A" and "Type B."	Small, white flowers are borne in axillary or terminal panicles.	Tepals are equal, about 4 mm long, strigose, and the flowers are strigose. Fertile stamens are 9, outer 6 are introrse, inner 3 are extrorse, and staminodia are present and cordate.	In axillary or terminal panicles, tiny, pale-yellow flowers.
Fruit	Fruit is a fleshy, ovoid drupe that turns dark purple or black when ripe and contains one seed. Persistent calyx	Fruit is a green, fleshy, globose drupe that turns dark purple or black when ripe and contains one seed	A little cupule with the basal, truncate portions of tepals adhering to the rim supports the ellipsoid berry's fruit.	Fruit is a globose, green, fleshy drupe that carries one seed and matures to a dark purple or black colour.
Bark characteristics	Almost papery, brittle, easily crushed, or powdered. The colour is pale yellowish-brown	Bark is thick and hard when dried. Dark brown in colour	Smooth, greyish brown bark with fragrant inner bark and yellow sapwood.	The hue ranges from a light, reddish-brown hue on thin scraped bark to a Gray shade on thick unscraped bark.
Bark/Quills	Quills are made using the dried inner bark of the stems. Rolled into quills of less than 0.08 mm thick and usually debarked. Quillis filled with single, small bits of bark and has one spiral curl.	Curling inward like scrolls with an approximate thickness of 1.5 mm on average. When dried, it displays a twofold curvature, forming a spiral of desiccated bark, a short section of comparatively straight bark, and the remaining long edge spirals in the reverse direction. The hue of powdered cassia appears to be a deep shade of reddish-brown.	substantially thicker (between 1 and 3 mm) and less likely to break. The quills are similar to Ceylon cinnamon in colour on the outside, but the interior side of the bark is a considerably darker Gray-brown.	Quills harvest from young branches, bark dried to form quills. Colour of quills varies from reddish colour to brown.
Taste	Pugent with mild sweetness	Mild aroma but sharp fragrance when boiled or cooked	Strong Cassia Cinnamon taste	The taste is bold, spicy and sweet.

NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION^25,26

Constituents	Value
Energy -	247kcal/ 1035KJ
Protein -	3.99g
Total Fat -	1.24ga
Ash -	3.6 g
Fibre -	54.3g
Carbohydrate -	80.59 g
Vitamin k -	0.08ug
Vitamin E; a-tocopherol	0.01mg
Vitamin C -	28.5 mg
Vitamin B6 -	0.25 mg
Iron -	8.32 mg
Calcium -	1002 mg
Zinc -	1.38 mg
Copper -	0.339 mg
Magnesium -	60 mg

Traditional Uses:

Cinnamon has a broad scope of uses in traditional spices, as well as in incense, fragrances²⁶. It is utilized for producing chocolate, drinks, spicy confectioneries, and alcoholic beverages, among other items²⁷. The Vata and Pitta elements in the body are regulated by           Cinnamon ^28,29. Numerous investigations have cited the anti-diabetic, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer, anti-HIV activity, wound healing, anti-anxiety and depression activities of cinnamon³⁰.

Some Important Dalchini Therapeutic Benefits in Ayurveda

· It eases the symptoms of a sore throat, the influenza, a cold, and a headache.

· It has anti-tubercular properties and is also used as an expectorant.

· Additionally beneficial for lowering cholesterol levels, and tends to make heart muscles stronger.

· According to reported research, dalchini is also effective in treating multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's Parkinson's, and other cognitive illnesses ³⁰.

Rasa Panchak of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Dalchini)³⁰:

Rasa- Madhura, Tikta Guna, and Katu

Guna- Laghu, Rooksha, Tikshna

Virya- Ushana

Vipaka-Katu

Table no.2 Chemical constituents and pharmacological activity of various species of cinnamon ^31-57.

Plant	Part used	Chemical constituents	Pharmacological activity	Medicinal uses
Cinnamomum loureiroi Nees	Bark	Cinnamic aldehyde, methoxy cinnamaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, Copaene, a-amorphene, Caryophyllene, phellandrene, a-cedrene oxide, b-pinene	Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral	Abdominal pain, atherosclerosis, blood pressure lowering, carcinogenesis, cardiovascular diseases, chest congestion, cholesterol lowering, conjunctivitis, cough and cold, diarrhoea, erectile dysfunction, flatulence
Cinnamomum zeylanicum	Bark, Fruit Leaf, Root.	Cinnamyl alcohol, Camphene, B-Pinene Sabinene a- Phellandrene, Myrcene, p- Phellandrene, P-Ocimene  y-Terpenene, Benzyl benzoate, Eugenyl acetate, Linalyl acetate, Eugenol, p- Caryophyllene a-Humulene, cinnzeylanin, cinnzeylanon, cinnamate	Antioxidant Activities, antidiabetic activity, Antimicrobial, Antifungal, Antityrosinase activity, anticancer	colds, indigestion, coughs, and microbial infections, treat indigestion, diabetes, acne, respiratory, and urinary disease, stomachache, chest tightness, diarrhea, dyspepsia, and gastritis, alopecia, stomach cancer and melanoma, leukemia and lymphoma, hypothermia, oxidative stress
Cinnamon cassia	Bark, Leaf, Twig	Cinnzeylanol, 2,3 dehydroanhydro-cinnzeylanine 1-acetylcinncassiol A, Anhydrocinnzeylanine, 18S-cinncassiol A 19-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, cinnamic acid, Hydrocinnamaldehyde, Phenylacetaldehyde, Methyl eugenol, (E)-Cinnamaldehyde, cinncassin E camphene, Borneol, Terpineol, (Z)-Isoeugenol, Cinnamyl acetate, (E)-Cinnamic acid, (E)-2-Methoxycinnamaldehyde	anti-allodynic effect, inhibitory effects against staphylococcus aureus, aspergillus niger, bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli, klebsiella pneumoniae and pseudomonas aeruginosa, anti-tumour effects, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, anti-diabetic and anti-obesity effects and antiviral effects, cytoprotective effects, neuroprotective effects	ardiopalmus, Curing stomachache, poor apetite and dyspepsia. insomnia and dreamful sleep. hyperplasia of prostate gland, Dizziness, nausea, Hernia, algo menorrhea. treating chronic rheumatic arthritis, chronic gastroenteritis.

Cinnamon's neuroprotective properties:

These neurodegenerative illnesses impact more than 10 million people worldwide annually and are expected to increase by 20% within the next ten years. Neurodegenerative illnesses involve the gradual deterioration and breakdown of specific neuronal networks within the brain, resulting in significant impairment of cognitive and behavioural functions. Cinnamon has been discovered to to inhibit the production of several pro-inflammatory compounds, including nitric oxide, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, in activated microglia⁵⁸. Cinnamon has been discovered to reduce the pathology of AD, which includes NFTs and Aβ plaques in the brain. Studies show that cinnamon extract can inhibit tau aggregation, a key factor in AD. Proanthocyanidins, found in cinnamon, have the ability to bind unstructured proteins rich in proline via hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding, which may contribute to their biological activity. These compounds can bind to peptides via the prolyl ring or the carbonyl moiety of a prolyl linkage^59,60. Cinnamon can be used for protecting the brain from the damaging effects of trauma to the brain (TBI), even small amounts of cinnamon can effectively prevent the death of brain cells through various mechanisms and this effect was evaluated in mice⁶¹.

Cinnamon’s antidiabetic properties:

Alpha-amylase inhibitors, which are compounds that can slow down the digestion of carbohydrates, can be obtained from natural sources such as polyphenols, which are found in cinnamon. These inhibitors have been shown to be effective in reducing blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes^62,63. The hypoglycaemic impact of Cinnamon oil's (CO) was studied in KK-Ay mice with type 2 diabetes. After administering 25, 50, and 100mg/kg of CO for 35 days, the 100mg/kg group was found to be most effective in reducing fasting blood glucose levels. Additionally, there were significant improvements in glucose tolerance, lipid levels, and pancreatic islet function. Cinnamon oil, which mainly contains cinnamaldehyde and nineteen other components, could be helpful in the treatment of type 2 diabetes⁶⁴.

In a study of Type 2 diabetics: 109 participants with HbA1C levels above 7.0, Participant’s assignments were made at random to usual care with daily cinnamon capsules 1g for 90 days. Taking cinnamon could be useful for lowering serum HbA1C in type 2 diabetics with HbA1C >7.0 in in addition to standard care⁶⁵. Cinnamon has demonstrated a positive impact on glycaemic control, as reflected in both HbA1c and FPG levels, and initial results suggest that cinnamon may be a promising short-term solution for improving glycaemic control in individuals with diabetes (<4 months)⁶⁶.

Anticancer activity of cinnamon:

The equilibrium between cell growth and programmed cell death can lead to the latency of human tumours for extended periods. As a result, consequently preventing the process for generating new blood vessel which is known as angiogenesis blockade, is a significant strategy for both the treatment and prevention of cancer. Type A procyanidin trimer and tetrameric procyanidins, which are components of Cinnamon, have been identified and found to be effective in suppressing the activity of VEGFR2 kinase and VEGF signalling in endothelial cells and inhibit the procedure for angiogenesis⁶⁷.

The antitumor potential of trans-cinnamaldehyde was investigated against specific cancerous human cell lines as well as normal primary purified T cells and macrophages. The assessment included examining both the cytotoxic and inhibitory effects of Trans-cinnamaldehyde on these cells. The study's findings demonstrated that trans-cinnamaldehyde effectively suppressed the viability of IC50 values. Importantly, trans-cinnamaldehyde did not exhibit any discernible effect on the viability of primary purified T cells or macrophages. Based on this study's outcomes, trans-cinnamaldehyde shows promise as a potential chemotherapeutic agent for treating cancer in humans⁶⁸.

Cinnamon’s cardioprotective activity:

Cinnamaldehyde and trans-cinnamic acid exhibit a protective influence on endothelial cells by stimulating the production of nitric oxide through the activation of the Nrf2 signalling pathway and augmenting pAKT-Ser473 and eNOS-Ser1177. Additionally, they have the potential to regulate lipid metabolism by decreasing lipogenic processes, enhancing fat absorption, and mitigating lipid accumulation, which may lower the risk of cardiovascular disease. Eugenol, cinnamyl alcohol, and cinnamic acid possess the ability to inhibit the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells by modulating the cell cycle^69.

2-Methoxycinnamaldehyde (2-MCA) can decrease VCAM-1 expression in endothelial cells activated by TNF-α and protect against Ischemia/reperfusion injury through induction heme oxygenase (HO)-1⁷⁰.

Cinnamon’s Antioxidative activity:

An 8-week double-blind randomized controlled clinical trial was carried out to investigate the effects of cinnamon supplementation. Random assignments were made for participants to receive either 3 capsules containing 500mg of cinnamon or a placebo daily. The results showed increased the serum total antioxidant capacity and decreased the levels of malondialdehyde compared to the placebo group.  Additionally, cinnamon supplementation was found to significantly improve the serum levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ⁷¹.

In vitro study it was found that the alcoholic extract of cinnamon demonstrated a relatively higher ability to scavenge nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide, and lipid peroxide^72,73.

In a study involving rats given a diet high in fat along with cinnamon and cardamom, it was found that the antioxidant enzyme activities were significantly enhanced. Furthermore, the rats given a diet high in fat cinnamon showed a marked restoration in GSH       content ⁷⁴.

Anti-Inflammatory effect of Cinnamon

Numerous age-related disorders have been identified to be influenced by chronic inflammation. An investigation of anti-inflammatory properties of cinnamon species extracts Cinnamomum cassia and Cinnamomum zeylanicum was done. Results revealed that the lipophilic compounds present in these extracts are primarily responsible for their anti-inflammatory activity. Specifically, E-cinnamaldehyde and o-methoxy-cinnamaldehyde are the key compounds that contribute to the inflammatory properties of cinnamon⁷⁵.

The essential oil extracted from the twig of C. osmophloeum contains trans-cinnamaldehyde, caryophyllene oxide, l-borneol, l-bornyl acetate, eugenol, β-caryophyllene, E-nerolidol, and cinnamyl acetate have been found to exhibit exceptional anti-inflammatory properties by effectively suppressing the production of nitric oxide⁷⁶.

CONCLUSION:

The usage of Cinnamon species in traditional medicine as a cost-effective and safe alternative for treating a variety of ailments looks promise. In addition to having potential therapeutic benefits, Cinnamon species are a significant source of novel chemicals.

There are several health advantages of cinnamon have been linked to it, including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-antidiabetic, and cardioprotective actions. Phenolic chemicals and flavonoids, which may be responsible for these effects. While the anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and antidiabetic activities may achieve indirectly through receptor-mediated processes, the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities may take place through direct action on oxidants or microbial species. Nevertheless, Additional research is necessary to provide more clinical proof for its conventional uses against cancer and inflammatory, cardioprotective, and neurological disorders, despite the encouraging findings from numerous studies.

To maximise the therapeutic potential of cinnamon for the treatment of neurodegenerative illnesses, future research should concentrate on finding key molecules causing cinnamon's neuroprotective benefits and characterising their molecular pathways. In conclusion, It needs research to completely comprehend the possible advantages and restrictions of cinnamon, despite the fact that it shows great promise as a natural remedy for a variety of health concerns.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Ashwini R. Madgulkar, Principal, AISSMS College of Pharmacy, Pune, for her encouragement and guidance.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:

No conflict of interest was declared by the authors. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper.

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Received on 02.08.2023 Modified on 22.02.2024

Accepted on 11.07.2024 ©Asian Pharma Press All Right Reserved

Asian J. Res. Pharm. Sci. 2024; 14(3):249-255.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5659.2024.00041