Prevalence of Pathogenic Bacteria from
Contaminated Yemeni Currency Notes in Taiz City
Samira Hanash1,
ShaymaMunqith Al-baker2, Talal al-harazi3, Mawhoob
Alkadasi4,
Abdulbaset A. Zaid5
1Department of
Microbiology, Medicine College, Taiz University,
Yemen
2Department of
Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Ibb
University
3Department of Parasitology, Medical Collage Taiz
University, Yemen
4Department of
Chemistry, Zabid Education College, Hudaiadah University.
5Post Graduate
and Research Centre, Maulana Azad College,
Aurangabad, India.
*Corresponding Author E-mail: alkadasi82@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Pathogenic bacteria responsible for the causation of many common
diseases have been identified on currency notes. The present investigation was
carried out on one hundred currency notes of all the denominations (50, 100,
250, 500 and 1000RY), obtained from different occupational mainly bus drivers,
hawker street, vegetable vendor, restaurants and butchers and fish seller
groups in Taiz city,Yemen. Identification and characterization revealed
active participation of the following species of organisms in the ascending
order of percentage as E. coli(50.28 %),Staphylococci aureus(14.04
%), Klebsiellaspp(4.39 %),proteus(4.39
%), salmonella(1.25 %), shigella(0.72 %), Coagulase negative staphylococcus(0.60 %), pseudomonas(0.50
%), beta haemolytic streptococcus(0.30 %),spore
forming gram positive bacilli(0.30%) and alpha haemolytic
streptococcus(0.10%). The study suggested that yemenicurrency
notes is commonly contaminated withpathogenic
microorganisms and this contamination may play a significant role in the
transmission of potentiallyharmful microorganisms or
different diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, skin infections and also poses antibioticresistant, so great care should be taken during
handling of money and the preparation and handling of foodto
avoid cross contamination.
KEYWORDS: Prevalence of
pathogenic bacteria isolated from Yemeni currency notes.
INTRODUCTION:
The environment plays important role in
transmission of microbial agents to humans, with many environmental materials
serving as vehicles [1]. Microorganisms are found in almost everywhere in our environment.
Some microorganisms are useful but some are pathogenic. Currency note is widely
exchanged for goods and services in most countries worldwide. Currencies note
are extensively used and each currency is exchanged many times during the time
it circulates. Currency on which pathogenic microorganisms might survive
represents an often overlooked reservoir for enteric disease [2].
Paper Currency, can be contaminated by
droplets during coughing, sneezing, touching with previously contaminated hands
or other materials and placement on dirty surface.
Paper currency is commonly handled by
various categories of people during transaction [3]. Contamination of objects
by pathogenic microorganisms is of much public health concern as contaminated
materials can be sources of transmitting pathogens. Paper money, therefore
presents a particular risk to public health, since communicable diseases can
spread through contact with foinites [4-9]. Although
paper money is impregnated with disinfectants to inhibit microorganisms,
pathogens are isolated from paper currency notes and coins [10].
Studies in different parts of the world
have reported high rates of microbial contamination of currency notes in
circulation [11,12]. The microorganisms implicated
included members of the family Enterobacteriacea,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Vibrio cholerae, and Bacillus species. Staphylococcus
sp. Micrococcus sp. and Coiynebacterium sp.
Most likely contaminants of paper money are environmental organisms such as
Gram- positive flora (especially Bacillus
Table1:Currency
denomination with relation with occupational groups.
|
Currency denominations |
50
RY |
100RY |
250RY |
500RY |
1000RY |
|
No of currency(N) |
20 |
20 |
20 |
20 |
20 |
|
Occupational Group |
Table 2:Percentage
prevalence of different bacterial types per denomination of currency note
|
Currency denominations |
50RY |
100RY |
250RY |
500RY |
1000RY |
Total |
|
Staphylococci
aureus |
18.3 |
20.68 |
18.62 |
12.6 |
0 |
14.04 |
|
58.4 |
49.2 |
66.7 |
42.61 |
34.5 |
50.28 |
|
|
0.74 |
0 |
0.91 |
1.38 |
0 |
0.60 |
|
|
2.1 |
0.47 |
9.51 |
6.36 |
3.5 |
4.39 |
|
|
0.61 |
0 |
5.64 |
0 |
0 |
1.25 |
|
|
Beta haemolytic streptococcus |
0 |
0.54 |
0 |
0.9 |
0 |
0.30 |
|
3.6 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0.72 |
|
|
Spore forming gram positive bacilli |
0.69 |
0 |
0.72 |
0 |
0 |
0.30 |
|
0 |
6.8 |
2.5 |
0 |
0.99 |
2.1 |
|
|
0 |
0.7 |
1.82 |
0 |
0 |
0.50 |
|
|
Alpha haemolytic streptococcus |
0 |
0.12 |
0.21 |
0 |
0 |
0.10 |
|
Rate of contamenation |
|
|
|
|
|
74.58 |
Microbial contamination of paper money is
not only confined to developing nations. Several studies from the United States
reported contamination of coins and paper bills and the identification revealed
the presence of pathogenic microbes like staphylococcus aureus,
E. coli, klebsiellaenterobacter [13,14].
Another survey isolated total of 93 different types of bacteria belonging to
the species staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterobacter,
Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Diptheroids, Klebseillapneumoniae
and E. vuluneris [15].
The aim of this study therefore was to
determine the level of bacterial contamination of the currency notes in
circulation in Taiz city, so as to determine whether
or not the notes constitute a potential source of disease spread. Taiz city was selected for the current study as it
represents a typical Yemenis population of the South part of the country. And
no study yet in this regards.
Sample collection:
This study was carried out during the
period from November 2013 to December 2014, the whole sample size was 125 YR
notes, samples were collected from different categories in Taiz
city, which the currency notes of 50 obtained from bus drivers, 100 obtained
from street hawkers,250 obtained from vegetable
vendor,500 obtained from restaurant and 1000 obtained from fish seller and
butchers.
Persons handling the money were asked to
deposit the currency in a sterile polythene bag, after being compensated with
other currency of same value. Samples that collected were labeled (serial
number, source and date of collection) and taken to the bacteriology laboratory
for analysis.
Isolation and identification of bacteria:
The origin samples for each currency were
cultured on blood agar,macConkey agar, salmonella,shigella agar, mannitol
salt agar.After incubation at 37 C ͦ
for 24 hr. the colonies were
identified by colony characteristics , gram staining ,and according to the
result of gram stain , the biochemical
test were used which are catalase ,coagulase, motility, indoleurea , kliger iron agar ,
citrate utilization and oxidase. To
guide us to the genus of isolated bacteria.
Results:
Out of the 100 currency
notes of five different denominations which collected from different sites as
shown in table 1. The present study revealed the extent and the
level of microbial contamination of Yemeni currency notes.
The cultures from the collected Yemeni currency notes shown
eleven different types of bacterial species. Identification showed the active
participation of these species in descending order as E. coli (50.28 %),Staphylococci
aureus (14.04 %), Klebsiella
spp (4.39 %), proteu
s(4.39 %), salmonella (1.25 %), shigella
(0.72 %), Coagulase negative
staphylococcus (0.60 %), pseudomonas (0.50 %), beta haemolytic streptococcus
(0.30 %), spore
forming gram positive bacilli (0.30%) and alpha haemolytic
streptococcus (0.10%) as shown in table 2.
Discussion:
The present study revealed the extent and
the level of contamination of Yemani currency
notes with pathogenic microorganisms. Table 2 shows the
prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms isolated from the Yemani currency
notes from 50 RY to 1000RY, from different occupational groups mainly bus
drivers, hawker street, vegetable vendor, restaurants and butchers and fish
seller groups. The results showed in table 2 indicated that all the currency
denominations groups had microbial contamination.
The study reported here found relatively
less prevalence of microbial contamination among higher denomination notes
presumably that may due to improper hand washing after using the toilet,
counting paper notes using saliva, coughing and sneezing on hands then exchanging
money, and placement or storage of paper notes on dirty surfaces. Microbes are
then transferred from one contaminated note to other notes. Most people are not
used to washing their hands after handling money.
In the present study shown that 74.58% of
currency note was contaminated with varieties of microorganism table2. These
findings are similar to the results of other studies such as Umeh et al, 2007[16] who found that eighty-nine percent of
Nigerian Naira notes studied were contaminated with bacteria. Ninety-four
percent of US one dollar bills had bacterial contamination and 80 ± 5% of old
two- Taka notes in Bangladesh had (coliform) bacteria contamination [17].
Rocha-Gámez et
al. [18] found that Out of the 70 peso banknotes, 48 (69%) to be contaminated
in Mexico while Pope et al. [15] revealed that pathogenic or potentially
pathogenic organisms were isolated from 94% of One-dollar bills survey.
Our results revealed that the more isolated
bacteria were E. coli and S. aureus followed by Klebsiellaspp, proteu
spps, salmonella
spp, shigella, Coagulase negative staphylococcus, pseudomonas,
beta haemolytic streptococcus and alpha haemolytic
streptococcus.
Simaller
study have done by Mohammed RafiqKhan el al 2013 [19]
who showed the active participation of these species in descending order as Escherichia
coli, Bacillus spp, Klebsiella
spp, Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella spp and Pseudomonas spp. However
Goktas and Oktay (1992)
[20] found similar result as present investigation. They isolated aerobic spore
forming bacilli (91%), Staphylococcus epidermidis
(63.3%), Staphylococcus aureus (4.2%), Enterococcus (24.1%), alpha hemolytic streptococcus (4.1%),
Streptococcus pneumonia (1.7%), Corynebacterium
(7.5%), Lactobacilli (10.8%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (31.7%), Enterobacter
(19.2%), E. coli (17.5%), Proteus
(l.7%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(0.8%), Shigella flexneri
(0.8%) from paper money samples of one hundred twenty currency notes.
In the
present study found that E. coli, was the
highest isolated bacterium which indicates the presence of fecal contamination
via cross-contamination with raw products or poor personal hygiene. Such
finding is in line with what has been reported that currency banknotes are
contaminated with enteropathogens [21]. Furthermore,
the results explain the notion that currency banknotes act as a potential
source of enteric diseases. For instance, all Salmonella are pathogenic to some
degree, causing salmonellosios. Species of Shigella are responsible for bacillary dysentery. Klebsiella species occasionally causes a serious form of
pneumonia in humans. Some species of Proteus are implicated in many infections
of the urinary tract. Staphylococcus species produces many toxins responsible
for toxic shock syndrome. Regarding the E. coli, this group of bacteria is a
primary cause of traveler's diarrhea [22,23].
In the
present study found that the second common pathogenic isolated from currency
notes was Staphylococci aureus table2. The presence of pathogenic staphylococci aureus
on money was expected because S. aureus carriers and diseased persons are common in the
population [24]. Simple nose rubbing, coughing or sneezing could cause
contamination of the notes [25]. Paper
currency has recently been identified as a mode of transmission of community-acquired
S. aureus
in [26].
Our study have been isolated enteric bacteria such as Klebsiella
spp and Pseudomonas
spp table2. Enteric bacteria, Klebsiella
spp, E. coli and Pseudomonas spp, have been common isolates on paper currency in
several studies [27,28]. Klebsiella
spp and E. coli are coliform
bacteria, indicating fecal contamination. This reflects poor personal [29].
However, Klebsiella spp
also causes respiratory infections that contribute to its presence through
droplet infection.
In the present
study found that coagulase-negative Staphylococci and
Shigella were common isolated bacteria in Yemeni courency notes. The isolation of coagulase-negative
Staphylococci on the currency notes could have been contamination from the
normal skin flora [30] and from the soil [31]. Moreover Shigella
species are common causes of food-borne and water-borne illnesses worldwide
[32]. The isolation of Shigella species and S. aureus from
the currency notes and the fact that some food vendors serve food with their
hands and also handle currency notes as they sell to their patrons, currency
notes contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms such as Shigella
species and S. aureus
may cross contaminate the food and may cause food-borne illness [33].
Other
species isolated from the Yemeni currency notes included: Coagulase negative staphylococcus, pseudomonas,
beta haemolytic streptococcus, spore forming gram
positive bacilli and alpha haemolytic streptococcus.
Similar
study has been done by Janardan et al., (2009) [34]
in their study isolated bacteria from Nepal currency notes. The microorganisms
were Coagulase negative staphylococcus,
alpha-hemolytic Streptococcus, Enterobacter spp, Acinetobacter spp, non-aeruginosa spp of Pseudomonas, bacillus spp, Alcaligenes spp, diphtheroids, and Escherichia vulneris,
which do not typically cause infections in healthy people rather
they were known to cause significant infections in those with depressed immune
systems, including those infected with HIV, undergoing cancer chemotherapy, or
taking other medications that depress the immune system. Those bacteria may
also cause infection in hospitalize patients.
CONCLUSION:
This study
found out that Yemeni currency notes is commonly contaminated with pathogenic
bacteria and this contamination may play a significant role in the transmission
of different diseases. We therefore advocate a greater sensitivity in the
handling of money. The general awareness about the possibility of acquiring
infection while applying saliva on fingers for counting currency notes; and
practicing good personal hygiene should be created in the public. Personal
hygiene to reduce risk of infection is recommended especially for those who
simultaneously handle food and money. Dirty and mutilated notes should be withdrawn
from circulation from time to time. The practice of keeping money in
brassieres, handkerchiefs and in shoes should be discouraged.
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Received on 02.02.2015 Accepted on 02.03.2015
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Asian J. Res.
Pharm. Sci. 5(1):
Jan.-March 2015; Page 08-11
DOI: 10.5958/2231-5659.2015.00002.8